Saturday, September 7, 2019
Effects of Mercury Contaminated Fish on Consumer’s Health Essay Example for Free
Effects of Mercury Contaminated Fish on Consumer’s Health Essay Mercury is an element that comes naturally in nature, or manufactured by humans. It comes in different forms. According to the New Jersey Department of Health, mercury may be found as metallic mercury, a kind of silver-gray liquid that is harmful when exposed into the air and breathed in; methylmercury, which may be ingested by eating fish; inorganic mercury which can be found in over-the-counter drugs, batteries, and other pharmaceuticals, and is harmful when breathed in or swallowed; and phenylmercury in household products like paints, cosmetics and toiletries and is harmful when breathed in, swallowed or passed through the skin (Kapsch, et. al, 1999).            This paper delves into the mercury and its harmful effects on the fish population and ultimately, adverse effects on human health. Mercury in the Environment            As noted above, mercury is found naturally in the environment.  Paul Kapsch, Matt Landi and Sarah Scwartz writes that natural incidents and accidents like forest fires and volcanic eruptions spew mercury into the air (1999).            The Natural Resource Defense Council adds that power plants and certain chemicals manufacturers, as well as other industrial facilities release mercury into the air through their daily operations. The released mercury eventually ends up in the waterways and oceans. Fish in these ecosystems ingest the mercury, which people, in turn ingest by eating the fish. (NRDC, 2006).            Mercury is also present in many things that one has at home like fluorescent and neon lamps, mercury switches in chest freezes, thermostat probes, thermometers, barometers and other gauges, laboratory solutions and even dental amalgam (Kapsch, et. al, 1999).            Paul Kapsch and his partners outlined the environmental impact of mercury. Citing ExtoxNet (1999), Kapsch, et. al, stated that while mercury enters the environment, concentrations in the air and atmosphere is generally very low. Mercury, however, is deposited into forest ecosystems where it accumulates in highly toxic forms. Eventually it leads up to aquatic ecosystems, which in some cases contribute to human health problems.            The Natural Resource Defense Council added that when mercury enters into the various water systems, bacteria take it in and convert it into a type of methyl mercury, which is easily absorbed by humans (1999). The NRDC also explained that the mercury then works it way up the food chain as larger fish eat smaller contaminated fish. Mercury, however, does not break down. Instead it accumulates in fish (1999).            To illustrate the point, the NRDC stated that predatory fishes like sharks and mackerel have been found to have 10,000 times higher mercury concentration (1999). How Mercury Enters the Body            Mercury can enter the body by breathing it in, swallowing or eating contaminated food, drinking contaminated water , or through the skin (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008).            Consumption of contaminated fish, however, is one of the most dangerous way of getting mercury in the body since it involves methylmercury, which is easily absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract into a persons bloodstream (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008).            In 2003, Dr. Jane Hightower, doctor of internal medicine at the California Pacific Medical Center in San Francisco, found that 89% of participating patients had high mercury levels. Most of these participants had as much as four times the safe level of mercury in their blood stream. Participants in Dr. Hightowers study were chosen precisely because of their fish-heavy diets. (NRDC, 2006).            Once in the bloodstream, the mercury goes into various parts of the body. Methylmercury in pregnant women gets passed on into the childs blood stream and then into the childs brain. A nursing mother may pass the methylmercury through breast milk. (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008). Health Risks            The NRDC says that mercury exposure can be particularly hazardous for pregnant women and small children.  The NRDC adds that mercury exposure can lead to cerebral palsy, mental retardation, blindness and deafness in infants and fetuses. Even with a minimal exposure, the child may be delayed in learning how to walk and talk, have low attention span and may later on develop learning disabilities (NRDC, 2006).            And the numbers are alarming. In July 2005, researchers at the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 1 in 17 women of childbearing age have more than 5.8 micrograms of mercury per liter of blood. The CDC stated that this level may pose a risk to the developing child (NRDC, 2006).            Mercury-contaminated fish is not just dangerous for children and pregnant women but it is also dangerous for adults (Mercola.Com, 2003). Mercola.Com related that mercury destroys the nerve tissues, the visual cortex and the cerebellum. It affects complex movements and balance. It also leads to problems in attention span and language. It also decreases concentration, deftness and verbal memory in adults. (Mercola.Com, 2003).            For some adults, mercury poisoning can lead to fertility problems and blood pressure regulation problems. It also causes memory loss, vision loss, numbness in the fingers and toes, and tremors. It is suspected that mercury exposure also leads to heart disease (NRDC, 2006).            The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry warned that the nervous system is prone to mercury contamination. The Agency said that in this type of mercury poisoning, some people who consumed seed grains and fish contaminated with large amounts of methyl mercury developed severe brain and kidneys damage.  The Agency explains that mercury accumulates in the kidneys, so it damages it more. (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008).  * * *            The above discussion shows that consumption of mercury contaminated fish is very dangerous for consumer’s health, and is a source of different diseases especially in (but not limited to) children and pregnant women. Studies have concluded that mercury poisoning have caused several conditions and diseases from simple memory loss, loss of concentration, fertility problems to something as grave and irreparable as mental retardation and kidney ailments. And studies on the relationship between mercury and other, more life-threatening diseases like heart ailments are currently underway. The growing body of evidence all points to some disease that can be traced to mercury poisoning.            Consumers have to actively control their fish diets. If they are fond of eating fish, they might find it useful to regularly check and look for advisories regarding mercury contamination in their area. It is also recommended that they regularly check their own mercury levels and if they found their mercury levels higher they have to consult with their doctors immediately.            Since mercury poisoning is more dangerous to pregnant women and small children, it might be best to veer away from eating fish altogether, and take up healthier choices such as vegetables and dairy products. Being more vigilant with regards to ones diet can reap long-term prevention that would help ensure optimum health.            Authorities need to take much stronger steps to protect a far greater portion of people. Authorities must examine their antiquated safeguards designed to protect an average person from an average amount of methyl mercury in fish and take more protective and realistic actions against exposure to methyl mercury through food. Authorities need to constantly update themselves, as safe levels of mercury in the diet are constantly changing. In fact, the trend is that the required safe levels are getting higher with each new research that goes out of the pipeline.            Public health authorities, as well as community leaders, or any health-related organization, must come together to inform, educate and empower the public about the dangers of fish consumption, mercury contamination, and adverse health effects. Information is the best weapon against mercury contamination, without it, no amount of public policy will be sufficient or effective. The public needs to be aware of what mercury does to the body, the diseases associated with it, where mercury could be found, how it gets into your body, what measures are to be done.            More than anything, it is high time to look at more efficient ways of disposing all types of mercury. Since mercury could be found in nature, it will be next to impossible to eradicate it. What one could hope for is to reduce environmental damage from the mercury that we can control. If people could somehow take care and reduce the amount of mercury that goes into the environment as waste, people would be protecting not only the oceans and the fish, but also themselves. Taking care of the environment would ensure sustainability in the future and would drastically decrease mercuryand in fact and principleall types of contamination.            In effect, stopping or greatly reducing mercury contamination and all the ill effects associated with it takes the effort of everybody in the community, but it starts mainly with your self.    References Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (Content source); Sidney Draggan and Emily Monosson (Topic Editors). 2008. Public Health Statement for Mercury. In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth November 13, 2007; Last revised January 24, 2008; Retrieved April 2, 2008]. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Public_Health_Statement_for_Mercury Jeremy Laurence, (8 March, 2007) Fish Contaminated With Mercury Pose Worldwide Threat to Health. The Independent. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/fish-contaminated-with-mercury-pose-worldwide-threat-to-health-439267.html Kapsch, Paul, Landi, Matt and Schwartz Sarah. (1999). Mercury. University of Vermont. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.uvm.edu/~vlrs/doc/mercury.htm Learn About Mercury and Its Effects, (2006) Natural Resource Defense Council. Retrieved on 23rd March 2008. http://www.nrdc.org/health/effects/mercury/effects.asp Mercury-Contaminated Fish Poses Health Risks to Adults, (2003) Mercola.com. Retrieved on 25th March, 2008. http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2003/06/21/mercury-fish-part-six.aspx
Friday, September 6, 2019
Research Plan Essay Example for Free
Research Plan Essay Background of the Study Solid waste management is increasingly seen as a major issue in the country due to high rates of urbanization and increasing per capita solid waste generation with greater affluence (Petnamsin, et al., 2000). A major component of solid waste is resin based plastic. Plastics posses many properties such as water resistance and long life, that makes them perfect candidates for packaging. Unfortunately, the properties that make this product suitable for packaging also are the major cause of the environmental problems related to packaging. Given the wide use of plastics, the magnitude of the environmental problem is large and long terms. The choices for dealing with this waste are limited as incineration of plastic polymers invariably results in the generation of toxic emissions (Srorith, et al., 2000). The only visible solution is to bury the material in landfills. However, this approach is also limited because of the resistant nature of plastic to biological degradation. Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. is a popular fruit-crop that is widely grown in tropical areas. Often, its seeds are discarded because of the preferred well-flavored yellow sweet bulb for consumption. The seeds have high carbohydrate and protein content, hence, an abundant source of starch (Kurian, 2010). Starch is identified as a key natural product for the production of biodegradable plastic (Pranamuda, et al., 2006). Based on the above information, the researchers decided to do research work on starch-based biodegradable plastic from jackfruit seeds. Henceforth, there is a need to establish the additive property of starch from jackfruit seeds as scientific basis for its use in the production of biodegradable plastic. Objectives of the Study The study will aim to find out if jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. seeds can be a main component in the production of biodegradable plastic. Specifically, the study will 1. determine the efficacy of starch from jackfruit A.heterophyllus Lam. seeds at varying concentrations as additives in the production of biodegradable plastic. 2. compare the mechanical properties between the produced biodegradable plastic from starch of jackfruit A.heterophyllus Lam. seeds, and commercially prepared plastic, polyethylene in terms of tensile strength, flammability, soil biodegradability and air test. 3. compare the effects of acids and bases and organic solvents between produced biodegradable plastic from starch of jackfruit seeds and commercially prepared plastic, polyethylene. Hypotheses of the Study The following hypotheses will be put forward: 1. There is no significant difference in the efficacy of starch from jackfruit seeds at varying concentrations in the production of biodegradable plastic. 2. There is no significant difference on the mechanical properties between the produced biodegradable plastic from starch ofjackfruit seeds and commercially prepared plastic, polyethylene in terms of tensile strength, flammability, soil biodegradability and air test. 3. There is no significant difference on the effects of acids and bases and organic solvents between produced biodegradable plastic from starch of jackfruit seeds and commercially prepared plastic polyethylene. Significance of the Study The results of the study would be beneficial and helpful to the manufacturing plastic industries because it would relieve negative effects of overproducing plastics. By changing its raw materials and components, commercial plastic may be improved so that it would become biodegradable while retaining its good quality. Moreover,this component from starch of jackfruit seeds would help in the natural decomposition of plastic raw materials. Thus, a convenient way of minimizing waste management problem in the country, more so, the high demand for plastics would give the world the hazard of garbage problem, therefore, utilizing starch from jackfruit seeds as component in the production of biodegradable plastics would be the relative answer. Scope and Limitations of the Study The study will focus only on the starch-based biodegradable plastic from jackfruitA.heterophyllus Lam. seeds. It will be conducted at the Physics/Chemistry Laboratory of Antique National School, San Jose de Buenavista, Antique from July 15, 2011 to September 30, 2011. The variables to be evaluated will be the effect of starch from jackfruit seeds at varying concentrations for the production of biodegradable plastic; the mechanical properties between the produced biodegradable plastic from starch of jackfruit seeds and commercially prepared plastic, polyethylene in terms of tensile strength, flammability, soil biodegradability and air test;the effects of acids and bases and organic solvents between the produced biodegradable plastic from the starch of jackfruit seeds and commercially prepared plastic, polyethylene. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) will be used as statistical tools to identify the significant differences among treatment means and their interactions at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of significance, respectively. Definition of Terms Biodegradable.A substance or property of the produce plastic in the study that can be broken down into simpler substances by the activities of living organisms for decomposition. Plastic. An end product obtained mainly as a result of the study using starch from jackfruit seeds as main component mixing with other components for biodegradable formation. Starch. A complex carbohydrate extracted from jackfruit seeds and used in the study for the production of biodegradable plastic. Polyvinyl Alcohol. An odorless, colorless, tasteless, thermoplastic synthetic resin used in the study that is soluble in water and insoluble in common organic solvents. Glycerol. A simplest trihydric and commonly called glycerin in commercial form that is used in the study for the production of biodegradable plastic. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE After cutting talahib pulps into very small pieces, they were combined with different chemicals such as polyvinyl alcohol, sodium hydroxide in aqueous solution, glue, and glycerol to produce biodegradable plastics with different amounts of talahib pulp. (Valdez, 2009). A study determined the effectiveness of cassava starch as component of biodegradable plastic. Results confirmed that cassava starch is ideal as tests proved its worth (Romero, 2007). It was known that starch-based packaging materials are produced from extrusion or compression technology and have been developed as a substitute for polystyrene in producing loose-filters and other expanded items. The type of starch and synthetic polymer as well as their relative proportions in the blends may influence the properties of the resulting plastics (Sriroth and Sangseethong, 2003). Some physicochemical and rheological properties of jackfruit seed flour and starch, isolated from the flour were investigated. The flour had good capacities for water absorption and oil absorption. Flour from jackfruit seed was prepared by dry milling. It is high in protein and carbohydrate contents. The flour has good water and oil absorption abilities (Tulyathan, 2002). The range of possible applications for starch plastics is restricted by their sensitivity tomoisture and water contact and high water vapour permeability. The biodegradability of starch plastics largely depends on the biodegradability of the copolymer. High copolymer content can adversely affect biodegradability due to the complex interaction of starch and polyester at the molecular level (DegliInnocentiBastioli, 2002). Starch is unique among carbohydrates because it occurs naturally as discrete granules. This is because the short branched amylopectin chains are able to form helical structures whichcrystallize. Starch granules exhibit hydrophilic properties and strong inter-molecular association via hydrogen bonding due to the hydroxyl groups on the granule surface (Daniel et al., 2000). Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. is a popular fruit-crop that is widely grown in the Philippines and other tropical areas. The ripe fruit contains well-flavored yellow sweet bulbs which are consumed fresh or processed into canned products and seeds embedded in the bulb. Seeds make up around 10-15% of the total fruit weight and have high carbohydrate and protein content and are normally discarded or steamed and eaten as a snack or used in some local dishes. As fresh seeds cannot be kept for a long time, using them as source of starch is advisable (Bobbio et al 1978). Based on the above review of related literature, there is a need to conduct a study on starch-based biodegradable plastic from jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. seeds and because in all studies, nothing has been mentioned about jackfruit seeds as component of biodegradable plastics. CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS The flow of processes on starch-based biodegradable plastic from jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. seeds is shown in Figure 1. Collection and Preparation of Research Materials, Tools and Equipment The researchers will collect three (3) kilograms of jackfruit seeds from the source for two (2) days before the conduct of the study. These will be brought to the Physics/Chemistry Laboratory of Antique National School, San Jose de Buenavista, Antique. Technically grade ethanol, hydrochloric acid, acetic acid and sodium hydroxide, ammonia, distilled water, chlorine, polyvinyl alcohol, epoxydized soy bean oil, and glycerol will be obtained from chemworks, Inc.Jaro, Iloilo City prior to the conduct of the study. The other materials and equipment needed will be mortar and pestle, grinder, beakers, alcohol lamp, rolling pin, aluminum foil, stirring rod, molders, spring balance, double beam balance, tray, plastic cups, graduated cylinder, stopwatch, and hot plate. Research Procedure/ Experimental Design Three (3) kilograms of jackfruit seeds will be rinsed and washed in running water and will be air-dried for twenty-four (24) hours at room temperature. After air-drying, the seeds will be peeled manually. Then the seeds will be cut into smaller pieces and ground using an electric grinder. The ground jackfruit seeds will be added with water following the ratio 1:2, one (1) liter of distilled water to two (2) kilograms of ground jackfruit seeds. The mixtures will be placed inside the beaker for decantation for three (3) hours. After decantation, the supernatant will be discarded and the settling material will be collected and placed in an evaporating dish for the starch sediments to settle. This will be sun-dried for five (5) hours to let the water evaporate completely. After the evaporation process, the collected starch sediments will be ground using mortar and pestle until it will turn into powdered form. The produced starch will be weighed and placed in a sterilized container ready for experimentation. Measured amount of the water and jackfruit starch based on different treatments will be mixed and boiled using a hot plate at eighty (80(C) degrees Celsius until it will form into a sticky paste. After removing the starch-water mixture from the hot plate, the rest of the materials will be added such as polyvinyl alcohol, epoxydized soya bean oil, and glycerol. After mixing all the materials, the mixture will be heated again using a hot plate at a temperature of one hundred eighteen to one hundred twenty (118-120(C) degrees Celsius for seven (7) minutes. Then it will pass through a rolling pin and transferred to containers for sun-drying process until the plastic will be formed. The plastic will be cut into strips (3 cm wide by 5 cm long) for mechanical property, effects of acid and base, and organic solvents tests, respectively. The experiment will use five (5) treatments with three (3) replicates each. The duration of the experimental activities will be seventy-eight (78) days that will begin on July 15, 2011 and will end on September 30, 2011. The five (5) treatments that will be used in the study are as follows. Treatment A = 100 grams starch + 100 grams water + 100 grams polyvinyl alcohol + 2.5 grams epoxydized soya bean oil +10 grams glycerin Treatment B = 75 grams starch + 100 grams water + 100 grams polyvinyl alcohol + 2.5 grams epoxydized soya bean oil +10 grams glycerin Treatment C = 50 grams starch + 100 grams water + 100 grams polyvinyl alcohol + 2.5 grams epoxydized soya bean oil +10 grams glycerin Treatment D = 25 grams starch + 100 grams water + 100 grams polyvinyl alcohol + 2.5 grams epoxydized soya bean oil +10 grams glycerin Treatment E – Control – Commercial plastic (polyethylene) Gathering of Data The cut samples of the produced biodegradable plastic will be subjected to the following tests: Flammability Test. The strips of the produced biodegradable plastic and commercial plastic with the same dimensions will be completely burned using alcohol lamp and the burning time will be noted. Soil Biodegradability Test. The plastic strips will be stapled to a piece of cardboard and will be buried in a can of soil. The strips will be unearthed after a week and the final dimension will be recorded. Tensile Strength Test. The plastic strips will be hooked to a spring balance and will be pulled until they will tear apart. The reading of the balance when the plastic strips will break will be recorded. Effects of Strong and Weak Acids and Strong and Weak Bases.The plastic strips will be immersed in concentrated strong/weak acids and strong/weak bases for thirty (30) minutes. Changes in length, width, and appearance will be noted. Organic Solvent Tests. The plastic strips will be immersed in a bottle of chlorinated water/ethanol. The bottle will be sealed so as to isolate its contents from the external environment. After a week, their final dimensions will be noted.
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Investigation of Sphincter Muscle Complex
Investigation of Sphincter Muscle Complex Abstract Background: The exact anus reconstruction is the critical in patients with imperforate anus which is related to the correct diagnosis of sphincter complex. Objectives: The aim of this study is exact investigation of the prineal region for ultrasound detection of place and pathway of sphincter muscle complex. Patients and Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was performed at Mashhad medical university during 2016. Transperineal sonography was done in ten patients (6-12 week age, 8 male and 2 female) with imperforate anus. Results: The shortest distance between rectal pouch and skin was between 8 to 20 mm, but the distance between rectal pouch and skin via the anal sphincter path was longer (11 to 23 mm). The multi-layer view of anal tubercle was seen in all patients except one. It had a curved and occasionally parasagittal path and eccentric than muscle complex. Anal muscle sphincter complex could be seen in all patients with 2- 3.6 mm, occasionally asymmetric. Conclusion: The multi-layer view of anal tubercle and the anal sphincter complex are the two important sonographic findings, which can better differentiated the level of anal malformation and act as an indicator for the location of pull through. Keywords: Anal sphincter muscle complex; Anorectal malformation (ARM); Imperforate anus (IA); Child 1. Background Colon cancer is a Imperforate anus is one of the anorectal malformations (ARM) which is characterized with abnormal termination of the hindgut. The anus reconstruction and fecal continence is one of the critical aspects of treatment and surgery of these patients which is related to the correct diagnosis of sphincter complex position and the anus reconstruction in the appropriate place within the sphincter muscle complex . There are various surgical approaches and procedures for anus reconstruction, including the use of preoperative MRI for diagnosis of type and level of anorectal malformation . In addition, there are some articles about the use of MRI in the detection of sphincter complex and the anus path guidance . However, later technique has some limitations and no available in all pediatric surgery centers. In Imperforate anus (IA) patients, sonography is used to determine the level of disorder (low, intermediate, high), which may be divided to three groups according to the distance between perineal skin surface and rectal pouch. However, there isnt an exact cut off for their differentiation and there is some diagnostic overlap . Some articles consider above 15mm as high type and below 10 mm as low type ARM , although another numbers between 5- 25 mm are also considered as cut off point in articles. The passage of rectum from levator ani muscle in transverse view of infra-coccygeal plan is another method that can help in differentiation between high and low groups. Furthermore, it is also used for diagnosis of internal fistula (rectourethral, rectovaginal and etc) which can be helpful in determining level of disorder . However in practice, these criteria have a little value for operation protocols and the surgical planning is mostly according to clinical criteria and intraoperative findings. The exact localization of anal tubercle and muscle sphincter complex with preoperative sonography can help the surgeon to select the less invasive surgical technique and improve surgical results. 2. Objectives The aims of this study is exact investigation of the prineal region for detection ultrasonic criteria of place and pathway of muscle complex and anal sphincter in the children with Imperforate anus. 3. Patients and Methods This descriptive cross-sectional study was performed at Dr. Sheikh pediatric Hospital during 2016 after being approved by the Institutional Review Board of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran and with its grant. In this study, ten patients (6-12 week age) with imperforate anus were selected after obtaining informed consent from their parents. Nine patients had previous colostomy within the two days of life and in another remaining one with rectovestibular fistula didnt previously performed it. Patients were also evaluated for associated congenital anomalies (VACTERL-H and etc.). The children were placed in lithotomy position and Foley catheter was passed from distal limb of colostomy to the rectum and the balloon was inflated and retracted backward and fixed. For better visualization of rectal pouch, normal saline was injected through fixed Foley catheter in rectum. After prep drape as the first step, transperineal sonography was done by an experienced pediatric radiologist. Sterile gel and Betadine were used for sonographic window. The ultrasound devices used in this study was sonosite Model S Nerve with a 12 MHz linear superficial probe. The sonographic criteria such as shorten distance of rectal pouch from the surface of skin, distance of rectal pouch from the surface of skin in anal sphincter complex pathway , the presence of internal fistula, multi-layered view of anal tubercle, state of anal sphincter complex were evaluated in both sagittal and coronal planes. The Distance between rectal pouch from the surface of skin in the shortest path and this distance in correlation with sphincter complex were separately measured. The distance between the rectal pouch and the surface of the skin and the presence of internal fistula were evaluated in the sagittal sonographic plane. Internal fistulas can be identified by changing of the rout the echogenic mucus of the rectum toward urethra or vagina. The multi-layered view of anal tubercle is exactly similar to gut signature, and visualized as a peripheral hypoechoic layer with two central parallel echogenic lines just below the skin (dermis). It has vertical position than to anal pit (Fig. 1A) and is visible only in coronal plan. Anal sphincter complex is noticeable as circular muscular tissue in the depth of the subcutaneous perineal area and is visible in coronal plan (Fig. 1B). 4. Results Table 1 showed the demographic and sonographic findings of ten imperforate anus patients with were selected for this study. Eight patients were male and other two were female. The shortest distance between the rectal pouch and the skin surface was between 8 to 20 mm, but the distance between the rectal pouch and the surface of skin via the anal sphincter path was longer and between 11 to 23 mm, that it was 3- 8 mm. (4.7 mm mean) longer. There were rectourethral fistula in 7, rectovaginal fistula in 1, rectovestibular fistula in 1, and in another one patient no fistula was detected. In patient with rectovestibular fistula, anal sphincter complex was pushed back toward the coccygeal tip due to fecal material pressure. The multi-layer view of anal tubercle was seen in all patients except one (rectovestibular fistula patient). The maximum outside diameter was 3-4 mm, but in patient with cloacal anomaly, it had about 10 mm in sagittal plan on the posterior of prineal orifice. In often patients, the anal tubercle path until center of muscle complex had a curved and occasionally parasagittal path and it wasnt straight (Fig. 1C). The visible length of multi-layer view of anal tubercle was 5-8 mm, and it attaches to the mucus of muscle complex eccentric or concentric (Fig. 1D). Anal muscle sphincter complex could be seen in all patients. The muscle complex thickness had 2- 3.6 mm which occasionally was asymmetric (Fig. 1E). 5. Discussion Imperforate anus is a congenital disease with abnormal termination of hindgut which have a wide spectrum of muscle sphincter complex development (from near-normal muscles to complete absence of the sphincter muscle). Routinely, depending on the level of the obstruction in above, middle and below of muscle sphincter, this anomaly is categorized into three groups (High, intermediate, low type) . The numerous factors especially the fecal continence after the surgery related to the diagnosis of the exact place of sphincter muscle complex . There are many articles about the role of preoperative MRI in the determining of the type and level of anorectal malformation which can be helpful in planning and the prediction of the prognosis and also investigation of the spinal and urethral anomalies which indirectly effect on the management of disease and operation . MRI has also a role in these patients for demonstration of the status of sphincter muscle complex, the symmetry of the sphincter, the perirectal fibrosis . The post-operative MRI is use to evaluate surgical results and the passage of pulled-through bowel from the center of sphincter complex . Recently, there are some few articles about the use of MRI in the localization of sphincter complex and the anus pathway as a guidance instrument . The sonography is usually used to determine the level of disorder (low, intermediate, high) indirectly basis on the distance between perineal skin surface to the rectal pouch and the internal fistulae visualization. Although, this approach isnt very determinative and there are a lot of diagnostic overlap in this field . In review article, we find only one paper about the detection of the passage of rectum from levator ani muscle in transverse view of infra-coccygeal plan that can be helpful for differentiation of high and low groups . The pre-operative exact localization of anal tubercle and especially sphincter muscle complex with sonography can be helpful for surgeons to select less invasive approaches that determines the future fecal continence of patient. In this study, with exact ultrasound investigation of prineal region, we noticed two sonographic findings which can be helpful in patients with imperforate anus to determine the proper path of anal canal for pull-through operation. These findings were multi-layered view of anal tubercle and sphincter muscle complex. Multi-layered view of anal tubercle is exactly similar to gut signature and was determined as a peripheral hypoechoic layer with two central parallel echogenic lines. This view was probably the result of fetal anal tubercle as a result non-ruptured anal membrane and non recanalized anal canal. This view wasnt seen in patient with recto-vestibular fistula. Although it had 3-4 mm diameter, in Cloacal anomaly patient, it had about 10 mm anterior-posterior diameters in sagittal plan that probably due to fetal merge of anal and vaginal orifices. In most of patients anal tubercle wasnt straight and had parasagittal position and slightly curvature with eccentric attachment to center of sphincter muscle complex. These can explain pathophysiology of disease. Anal sphincter and muscle complex was seen as a circular muscular tissue bulk that surrounds the echogenic mucus of gastrointestinal tract. It was visible on the coronal plane at depth of subcutaneous fat of the perineal area with 2-3.6 mm thickness. This complex was visible in all of our 10 patients. In a patient with rectovestibular fistula, this complex pushed backward to the near of coccyx probably due to fecal retention. Although most patients with Imperforate anus and recto-perineal fistula categorized as low type, but this patient had high type malformation because the sphincter complex has been pushed backward and tract of fistula lie above of muscle complex. In this patient, based on the distance of rectal pouch to the skin (9 mm) and based on clinical findings alone and without attention to muscle sphincter, the probability of successful surgery was too low without sonography guide. Then, visualization of the sphincter muscle complex and rectal pouch is an important sonoghraphic findings in imperforate anus patients that can differentiate better the patients to the high and low malformation. In addition, the result of this study shows that the distance between rectal pouch and skin without attention to muscle sphincter is unreliable and can make a serious pitfalls and unaware complications. In all patients, the distance between rectal pouch and skin through anal tubercle and muscle complex (11mm) was longer than shorten distance between rectal pouch and skin (3-8 mm mean: 4.7 mm). In lithotomy position, it is important to notice that multi-layered view of anal tubercle and anal sphincter complex was only visible in coronal view and was invisible in routine sagittal and transverse view, then it may be ignored and didnt notice to it in literatures. In the review of articles, we did not encounter a similar publication about the use of this findings in patients with imperforate anus, although there are many articles about the use of sonography to determine the anal sphincter complex in adults in various diseases . This is a preliminary cross sectional study with the low number of patients. In addition, the frequency of the ultrasonic probe device were our study limitations. Exact examination of perineal region with high-frequency probes (14 to 20 MHz) with high amount of the patients can provide better and more reliable results. Conclusion: The multi-layer view of anal tubercle and the muscular bulk of anal sphincter complex are the two important sonographic findings, which can better differentiated the level of anal malformation and act as an indicator for the location of anal sphincter pull through in patients with Imperforate anus.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Explanation Of How Both Long-t :: essays research papers
Using some of the causes in the list explain how both long-term and short-term causes contributed to Hitler’s rise to power. The treaty of Versailles caused a reaction of horror and outrage to the Germans. They were being forced to accept a harsh treaty without any choice or even a comment. Ebert was in an extremely difficult position. So he decided to accept the treaty of Versailles’ terms. When Ebert agreed to sign the treaty the Germans were furious, they were pleased the war had ended but they didn’t want humiliation. Hitler hated the treaty of Versailles, and he promised to kick out the treaty of Versailles as he had said in the Nazis’ Twenty-Five Points. People began to believe in Hitler. His Twenty-Five Point programme showed that the treaty of Versailles could be dealt as any other task, and he promised to abolish it right away. The treaty of Versailles was the most important of the Long-term causes because it gave Hitler the opportunity to share the same ideas as the Germans about the treaty of Versailles. So he took advantage in the middle of a politically destabilised German y. Short-term causes like the Munich Putsch helped his popularity, which was essential to his rise to power. Source 3: During the Munich Putsch Hitler said, â€Å"The Bavarian Ministry is removed. I propose that a Bavarian government be formed consisting of a Regent and Prime Minister invested with dictatorial powers... The government of the November criminals and the Reich president are declared removed... I proposed that until accounts have been finally settled with the November criminals, the direction of the policy in the National Government be taken over by me...†The Munich Putsch was a disaster for Hitler. People didn’t rise to support him. Hitler was arrested and charged with treason. In trial, Hitler gained lots of publicity and his ideas were reported in newspapers. Source 4:During the trial Hitler said, â€Å"I alone bear the responsibility but I am not a criminal because of that... There is no such thing as high treason against the traitors of 1918... I feel myself the best of Germans who wanted the best for German people.†Hitler convinced the judges, and got five years in prison instead of a life sentence, but Hitler served only nine months in Lansberg prison. Ludendorff was freed with Hitler. During his nine months in Lansberg prison Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, which expressed Hitler’s ideas towards Germany’s future. Explanation Of How Both Long-t :: essays research papers Using some of the causes in the list explain how both long-term and short-term causes contributed to Hitler’s rise to power. The treaty of Versailles caused a reaction of horror and outrage to the Germans. They were being forced to accept a harsh treaty without any choice or even a comment. Ebert was in an extremely difficult position. So he decided to accept the treaty of Versailles’ terms. When Ebert agreed to sign the treaty the Germans were furious, they were pleased the war had ended but they didn’t want humiliation. Hitler hated the treaty of Versailles, and he promised to kick out the treaty of Versailles as he had said in the Nazis’ Twenty-Five Points. People began to believe in Hitler. His Twenty-Five Point programme showed that the treaty of Versailles could be dealt as any other task, and he promised to abolish it right away. The treaty of Versailles was the most important of the Long-term causes because it gave Hitler the opportunity to share the same ideas as the Germans about the treaty of Versailles. So he took advantage in the middle of a politically destabilised German y. Short-term causes like the Munich Putsch helped his popularity, which was essential to his rise to power. Source 3: During the Munich Putsch Hitler said, â€Å"The Bavarian Ministry is removed. I propose that a Bavarian government be formed consisting of a Regent and Prime Minister invested with dictatorial powers... The government of the November criminals and the Reich president are declared removed... I proposed that until accounts have been finally settled with the November criminals, the direction of the policy in the National Government be taken over by me...†The Munich Putsch was a disaster for Hitler. People didn’t rise to support him. Hitler was arrested and charged with treason. In trial, Hitler gained lots of publicity and his ideas were reported in newspapers. Source 4:During the trial Hitler said, â€Å"I alone bear the responsibility but I am not a criminal because of that... There is no such thing as high treason against the traitors of 1918... I feel myself the best of Germans who wanted the best for German people.†Hitler convinced the judges, and got five years in prison instead of a life sentence, but Hitler served only nine months in Lansberg prison. Ludendorff was freed with Hitler. During his nine months in Lansberg prison Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, which expressed Hitler’s ideas towards Germany’s future.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Analysis Of Racism In Huck Finn Essay -- essays research papers
To teach or not to teach? This is the question that is presently on many administrators' minds about The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain. For those who read the book without grasping the important concepts that Mark Twain gets across "in between the lines", many problems arise. A reader may come away with the impression that the novel is simply a negative view of the African-American race. If we believe that Huck Finn is used only as a unit of racism we sell the book short. I feel that there is much to be learned about Blacks from this book and it should not be banned from the classroom. This is only one of many themes and expressions that Mark Twain is describing in his work. I believe that in Huck Finn slavery is used as insight into the nature of blacks and whites as people in general. Overall, the most important thing to understand is that Mark Twain is illustrating his valuable ideas without pushing them upon the reader directly. I believe that â€Å"Huck Finn†teaches a reader two important lessons about the true nature of people. Throughout the book, one of these main lessons is that Blacks can be just as caring as whites. The white characters often view the blacks as property rather than as individuals with feelings and aspirations of their own. Huck comes to realize that Jim is much more than a simple slave when he discusses a painful experience with his daughter. Jim describes how he once called her and she did not respond. He then takes this as a sign of disobedience and beats her for it. Soon realizing that she is indeed deaf, he comforts her and tries to make up for the act of beating. The feeling that Jim displays shows Huck that Jim has a very human reaction and the fact Jim says, "Oh Huck, I bust out crying....'Oh the po' little thing!" (Twain 151), only further proves to Huck that Jim is as caring as he is. Huck's realization allows him to see that Jim is no longer the ordinary sl ave. The point where Huck completely changes his attitudes towards blacks comes when he is faced with the dilemma of turning Jim in. Huck fights with his conscience and also remembers the things that Jim has done for him. "I'd see him standing my watch on top of his'n, stead of calling me, so I could go on sleeping; and see him how glad he was when I come back out of the fog; and when I come to him again in the swamp, up there wher... ...nable that ignorance and be a victory for racism and not a loss. To consider banning this novel simply because it has situations and characters that are considered racist is superficial. The novel does show the relationships between blacks and whites in the nineteenth century. However, it shows these situations not to promote racism against blacks, but for the reader to better understand the subject. The character of Jim is shown to be caring and considerate towards Huck and more mature and human than the society allows him to be. Although he is shown to be this way, Twain shows the irony and hypocrisy of treating a mature man like simple property. The novel also shows how a boy, who is a product of this hypocritical society, comes to realize the true nature of his friend Jim and how deranged the societies beliefs are. In showing these ironic situations and the transformation that Huck goes through the reader sees racism in a real life setting. People who want to ban the book miss the idea entirely. Instead of getting rid of something that is supp osedly racist, they only perpetuate racism by denying others a good source of material on the subject.
Monday, September 2, 2019
The Awakening: Romanticism, Realism, and Local Color Essay -- Chopin
The Awakening:  Romanticism, Realism, and Local Color    Imagine being far out into the middle of the ocean and at that moment, having to make a choice between judgment and individuality, death and life? In 1899, Kate Chopin composed a captivating novel titled The Awakening. Throughout Chopin's day, the work was regarded as nonsense and a waste of time on her part. Critics found the main character's rebellion to be foolish and unlawful. At that age, it was believed firmly that women should be nothing less than completely loyal to their husbands and should joyfully care for any children that they had while their spouse was away, hard at work. Edna, the central character, did not follow this standard. She says specifically that she would not give-up herself for her children. She is not one known to submit to her husband's every whim. Chopin brought Romanticism into play in a realistic setting with this individual. To these literary devices, she blends local color.             By manipulating Romanticism, Kate Chopin stretches one's imagination and startles one's mind. Romanticism is both a literary and an artistic movement. It took place in the eighteenth and nineteenth century during which people expressed freedom and individuality and emotions in their works. Chopin shows Mrs. Pontellier's display of freedom and individuality when Edna refuses to go in when her husband Leonce tells her to do so; rather, she stays out on the hammock and tells him to proceed inside without her. Romantics also loved exotic places and chose to display a character that follows his or her own heart. Chopin demonstrates this in her work when Edna realizes th... ...because Tuesday night social calls were a pastime, Realism because Leonce believed that Edna should put herself on hold every Tuesday night for company, and Romanticism because she chose not to stay.             Kate Chopin is now considered a wonderful author for the same piece that was once prohibited. People realize that she was just before her time. She blended a Romanticism which is now common to out time with a Realism that was true to her time. She enhanced it with a mà ©lange of Local Color into her setting to give a full outlook of Edna Pontellier's world. Seeing everything that she has to go through, which option should be chosen? Would it be better to live without freedom of individuality or die trying to get it? With all of the pressures that prevailed over Edna, she chose death.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
How Islam responds to Relationships Essay
Introduction Throughout this project, the intention of the information is to answer the question: How does the religion of Islam respond to issues on relationships? All through this Booklet, I have kept in mind to focus on the ideas of Islamic relationships and what this means to a Muslim, in the Islamic definition. In Islam a definition of relationships means marriage, contract, sex, families, children etc. Therefore, if applied to Islam in liaison to the now modern everyday life this would involve issues such as * Men & Women’s Roles in the family * Beliefs about the ethics of Divorce * Beliefs about sexual Relationships * Religious attitude to the use of contraception These are the subjects I will be talking about and looking over at the Islamic perspective on these topics of concern. To portray the view Islam has over these issues I will be using: * The genuine teachings from the word of our God `Allah` himself, doing this through the Qur’an. * Referring to important hadiths (lessons) and quotes from the prophet Mohammed (pbuh) * The message given out today by the most knowledgeable top scholars. These should give a clear message of what, the view on these issues used to be like, how they have progressed and possibly altered over the years, the differences on these matters from today in contrast to when the religion began, and how it is today, right now in Muslim houses and nations across the world. Islamic Marriage Ceremonies Marriage (nikah) is a solemn and sacred social contract between bride and groom. This contract is a strong covenant; `Mithaqun Ghalithun` as expressed in Qur’an 4:21. The marriage contract in Islam is not a sacrament. It is revocable, both parties mutually agree and enter into this contract. Both bride and groom have the liberty to define various terms and conditions of their liking and make them a part of this contract. Mahr The marriage-gift (Mahr) is God’s command. The giving of mahr to the bride by the groom is an essential part of the contract. ‘And give the women (on marriage) their mahr as a (nikah) free gift†(Qur’an 4:4) Mahr is a token commitment of the husband’s responsibility and may be paid in cash, property or movable objects to the bride herself. The amount of mahr is not legally specified, however, moderation according to the existing social norm is recommended. The mahr may be paid immediately to the bride at the time of marriage, or deferred to a later date, or a combination of both. The deferred mahr however, falls due in case of death or divorce. One matrimonial party expresses `ijab` willing consent to enter into marriage and the other party expresses `qubul` acceptance of the responsibility in the assembly of marriage ceremony. The contract is written and signed by the bride and the groom and their two respective witnesses. This written marriage contract (`Aqd-Nikah`) is then announced publicly. Sermon The assembly of nikah is addressed with a marriage sermon (khutba-tun-nikah) by the Muslim officiating the marriage. In marriage societies, customarily, a state appointed Muslim judge (Qadi) officiates the nikah ceremony and keeps the record of the marriage contract. However any trust worthy practicing Muslim can conduct the nikah ceremony, as Islam does not advocate priesthood. The documents of marriage contract/certificate are filed with the mosque (masjid) and local government for record. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) made it his tradition (sunnah) to have marriage sermon delivered in the assembly to solemnize the marriage. The sermon invites the bride and the groom, as well as the participating guests in the assembly to a life of piety, mutual love, kindness, and social responsibility. The Khutbah-tun-Nikah begins with the praise of Allah. His help and guidance is sought. The Muslim confession of faith that ‘There is none worthy of worship except Allah and Muhammad is His servant and messenger†is declared. The three Qur’anic verses (Qur’an 4:1, 3:102, 33:70-71) and one Prophetic saying (hadith) form the main text of the marriage. This hadith is: ‘By Allah! Among all of you I am the most God-fearing, and among you all, I am the foremost held responsible to save myself from the wrath of Allah, yet my state is that I observe prayer and sleep too. I observe fast and suspend observing them; I marry woman also. And he who turns away from my Sunnah has no relation with me†. The Muslim officiating the marriage ceremony concludes the ceremony with prayer (Dua) for bride, groom, their respective families, the local Muslim community, and the Muslim community at large (Ummah) Marriage (nikah) is considered as an act of worship (Ibadah). It is honourable to conduct it in a Mosque keeping the ceremony simple. The marriage ceremony is a social as well as a religious activity. Islam advocates simplicity in ceremonies and celebrations. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) considered simple weddings the best weddings: ‘The best wedding is that upon which the least trouble and expense is bestowed†. Primary Requirements 1) Mutual agreement (Ijab-O-Qubul) by the bride and the groom. 2) Two adult and sane witnesses. 3) Mahr (marriage-gift) to be paid by the groom to the bride either immediately (muajjal) or deferred (muakhkhar), or a combination of both. Secondary Requirements 1) Legal guardian (wakeel) representing the bride. 2) Written marriage contract (â€Å"Aqd-Nikah) signed by the bride and the groom and witnesses by two adult and sane witnesses. 3) Qadi (State appointed Muslim judge) or Ma’zoon (a responsible person officiating the marriage ceremony) 4) Khutba-tun-Nikah to solemnize the marriage. The Marriage Banquet (Walima) After the consummation of the marriage, the groom holds a banquet called a walima. The relatives, neighbours, and friends are invited in order to make them aware of the marriage. Both rich and poor of the family and community are invited to the marriage feasts. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: ‘The worst of the feasts are those marriage feasts to which the rich are invited and the poor are left out†. (Mishkat) It is recommended that Muslims attend marriage ceremonies and marriage feasts upon invitation. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: â€Å"†¦and he who refuses to accept an invitation to a marriage feast, verily disobeys Allah and His Prophet†. (Ahmad & Abu Dawood) Roles of Men and Women within an Islamic Family Islam teaches that men and women are equal and that Allah will judge them equally according to the way in which they have lived. Men and women are quite obviously different from each other and each have their own qualities, both of these joined together in the act of marriage is what makes a family work well. Due to the differences and qualities, men and women have different responsibilities to their children and to each other. These responsibilities are in no terms biased against women, the responsibilities laid upon the parents are balanced and equally as important to one another. Men do have the quality of normally being physically and mentally stronger than women, and for this, they are expected to provide his wife(s) with sufficient money to allow her to buy food, take care of the house and look after the children. But this does not mean that the father just has a financial role, not at all, the father is the leader of the home in Islam, it is his responsibility to set the social and emotional nature for the home and family. Men’s responsibility in Islam goes far beyond only financial. If the father is emotionally distant, perpetually angry, or closed off, chances are this will reflect throughout the rest of the family. Thus, the role of the father and husband as a â€Å"tone-setter†is a key element in the leadership & running of the household. I notice in my own home that when my father is engaged in reading/activities, I will take interest and want to join him. Rather than get upset at me for interrupting him, he will usually try to include me in what he is doing in a way that is playful and educational. This allows me to take an interest in it as well, increasing the bond and emotional connection between us. Islam gives fathers and mothers a great deal of responsibility for raising their children. It was narrated that ‘Abd-Allaah ibn ‘Umar heard the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) say, â€Å"Each of you is a shepherd and is responsible for his flock. The leader is a shepherd and is responsible for his flock. The man is the shepherd of his family and he is responsible for his flock. The woman is the shepherd of her husband’s household and is responsible for her flock. The servant is a shepherd of his master’s wealth and is responsible for his flock.†He said, I heard this from the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Women are expected to cook food, clean the house, and take care of the children but the fathers do also have a part in the upbringing of the children and the daily house chores as Mohammed (pbuh) used to help his wife Khadija at the housework as well. Also equal rights are given to both the women and men in Islam; Women do have the right to study if they which, to refuse a marriage, to divorce, to inheritance, to keep their own names, to own property, to take part in politics, whether they are married or not. Women are owed more respect in Islam than men and the pathway to heaven is at your mother’s feet. Muslim Beliefs about the Ethics of Divorce Muslim marriage is supported by Islam and is classified as a very good act between a man and women however Muslims are not so ignorant to think that marriages don’t fail. They do, it is acknowledged that they do, and since marriage is a legal contract between two people and if the continuation of a marriage brings misery to the couple and their children, it can be undone. In a hadith it states; `If a wife fears cruelty or desertion on her husbands part, there is no blame on the, if they arrange an amicable settlement between themselves; and such settlement is best; even though men’s souls are swayed by greed` Also it is said that of all things allowed in Islam but disliked (this is known as `makrooh` e.g. smoking) Divorce is the most hated of them all. A man cannot seek to have a divorce from his wife until it is certain that she is not pregnant, as they may change their mind and try and give it another go if the woman is pregnant. Also as divorce is much hated and is not to be done lightly at all, once divorce has been announced there is a period of three months called `iddah` this is a period of three months to allow for a possible reconciliation of the marriage. If there is no reconciliation then the divorce is permitted to take place. A woman is also allowed to have a divorce, either by an agreement with her husband or because of his treatment of her. Children are regarded as illegitimate if their parents are not married and, according to Shari’ah law, the father has no legal responsibility. These are the complete conditions of marriage in the contract and the circumstances in which it is permitted, backed up by quotes from the Qur’an. Requirements; * Marriage implies that both husband and wife are able to live with one another with kindness, respect and cooperation. It is their responsibility to raise a family and it is a covenant binding on both parties. * There are times when marriages fail and no solution can be found except divorce. * The Qur’an orders men to either live with their wives on good terms or divorce them, but they are not to hold them hostage: â€Å"When you divorce a woman and they are about to fulfill their Idda, either take them back on equitable terms or set them free, but do not take them back to injure them.†Chapter 2, verse 231. * A woman has the right to seek a divorce from her husband if she feels that their marriage is doomed. â€Å"If you indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by God, there is no blame on either of them if she gives something for her freedom.†Chapter 2, verse 229 Muslim Beliefs about Sexual Relationships In Islam, sexuality is considered part of our identity as human beings. In His creation of humankind, God distinguished us from other animals by giving us reason and will such that we can control behaviour that, in other species, is governed solely by instinct. So, although sexual relations ultimately can result in the reproduction and survival of the human race, an instinctual concept, our capacity for self-control allows us to regulate this behaviour. Also, the mere fact that human beings are the only creatures who engage in sexual relations once they are beyond the physical capacity for reproduction, sets us apart from all other species, which engage in sex for the sole purpose of reproduction. Beyond childbearing, sexual relations assume a prominent role in the overall well being of the marriage. In reading hadith, one is impressed with the Prophet’s ability to discuss all issues including those dealing with human sexuality. The topics range from questions about menstruation to orgasm. He apparently was not embarrassed by such inquiries, but strove to adequately guide and inform the Muslims who asked. Both Qur’an and hadith allude to the nature of sexual relations as a means of attaining mutual satisfaction, closeness and compassion between a wife and husband. â€Å"Permitted to you on the night of the Fasts is the approach to your wives. They are your garments and you are their garments.†(2:187) Adultery Also, Muslims are advised to avoid sexual intercourse during menses so as not to cause discomfort to the woman. It could be said that Islam has a very realistic attitude towards sex and realises that both men and women can be tempted to have a sexual relationship outside of marriage. Sexual activity of any kind is explicitly forbidden and adultery by the husband or the wife is a serious crime. `Nor come night to adultery: for it is a shameful deed and an evil, opening the road to other evils` (surah 17:32) Sex Before Marriage Naturally, attraction between individuals is necessary to initiate a relationship that leads to marriage. But sexual relations can obviously take place between any couple, consenting or not. Because of the far-reaching ramifications of sexual relations outside of marriage, God prohibits Muslims from such behaviour. And because the process that leads to physical attraction and ultimately intimacy is part of human nature, Muslims are advised to behave in a way and avoid circumstances that could potentially result in extra- or pre-marital sex. Modesty in dress and behaviour between women and men figures prominently as a means of exhibiting self-control. Similarly, unmarried couples are admonished against spending time alone in isolated places where they would be more likely to act on their feelings and thus be less inhibited. Homosexuality Human beings are capable of many forms of sexual expression, orientation and identification. The existence of such a variety again is not found in any other species and thus further demonstrates our uniqueness among God’s creations. The potential for behaviour, such as homosexuality, does not mean that its practice is lawful in the eyes of God. Therefore, individuals are expected to control themselves and not act on their desires if such action is contrary to the guidelines of Islam. Homosexuality, like other forms of sexual relations outside of heterosexual marriage, is thus prohibited. In any discussion of prohibited acts follows the question of what happens if they nevertheless occur. The Qur’an and hadith are explicit regarding severe punishment by the State if a person is convicted of such a crime. However, in order for conviction to take place, the individuals must confess or be accused by at least four eyewitnesses of the act of actual intercourse. Obviously, the likelihood of these criteria being met is small which means that most couples who engage in unlawful acts will not be punished by the State. They will then deal with the consequences of their behaviour in this life and will be accountable to God on the Day of Judgement. Only He knows how He ultimately judges. Muslim Beliefs about Contraception Contraception Although Muslims are encouraged to have children, contraception is not prohibited. The method used during the time of the Prophet was `coitus interruptus` (known as ‘azl`) about which several hadith exist. His basic response when asked if such a practice was lawful was that individuals can do as they will, but if God intends for a child to be born, she/he will be born. Some interpreted this to mean that preventing pregnancy is not recommended because childbearing is preferred; yet the act is not specifically prohibited. Also, other hadith stipulate that ‘azl could not be practiced without the wife’s consent as it might interfere with her sexual satisfaction or desire to bear children. The Qur’an does not make any explicit statements about the morality of contraception, but contains statements encouraging procreation. Various interpretations have been set forth over time, and at the time of this writing, discussions on the web can be found easily that take various positions. Early Muslim literature discusses various contraceptive methods, and a study sponsored by the Egyptian government concluded that not only was azl (coitus interruptus) acceptable from a moral standpoint, but any similar method that did not produce sterility was also acceptable. â€Å"It is permissible to use condoms so long as this does not cause any harm and so long as both husband and wife consent to their use, because this is similar to ‘azl (coitus interruptus or â€Å"withdrawal†). But it reduces the sensation of pleasure, which is the right of both partners, and reduces the chance of conception, which is also the right of both partners. Neither one of them is allowed to deprive the other of these rights. And Allaah is the course of strength.†– islamic-paths.org, Sex and Sexuality in Islam – Condoms (2005) [4] By analogy, the methods that exist today as contraceptives are lawful for Muslims to use at their discretion. Basically, it is our position that any method that does not involve pregnancy termination is permissible. Imam al-Ghazzali lists a number of legitimate reasons for practicing contraception, including; * Financial difficulty * Threat to mothers health * Chance of child being born with mental or physical deformities * Emotional or psychological hardship * Already having many children * Preservation of beauty and health. It should be clear from this discussion, that since sexual relations should be confined to marriage, contraception is so limited. It is not considered a means of easing the difficulties associated with sexual relations outside of marriage and should most certainly not be used in this way at all. Conclusion Overall, all in all in my total truthful opinion, I do believe that Islam the true words from Allah does promote marriage among society, does accept that marriages do fail and permits divorce and the use of contraception. I accept that marriage breakages can happen and that they cannot be forbidden as the continuous misery of two people is worse than the split of their marriage so it should be permitted. However I do think that in today’s modern society people are getting married with the thought that they can just divorce if it goes wrong but I believe this is truly wrong! People should seriously contemplate whether or not the time is right for them to get married before they just go into it. Also despite being Muslim myself I feel that the permittance of a man having more than one wife is wrong and unfair on the women themselves, because no matter how fair the man wants to be, he’ll never be able to treat all them with the same fairness. Also I don’t feel that a man is able to truly love more than one woman at the same time, so having more than one fair would make one think that the man doesn’t actually love any of his wives but keeps them for pleasurably reasons only. I also have to disagree with a certain Shari’ah law stating that `Children are regarded as illegitimate if their parents are not married and, according to Shari’ah law, the father has no legal responsibility` I believe this to be unjust as women cannot become pregnant by herself; the man in full knowledge of what he was doing had sex with her, giving him responsibility for any offspring created from it. Also men may very well use this law as a means of taking advantage of women as they will not be held responsible for any children created as a result of it. Apart from those, Islam has a very modern and fair way of looking at relationships, and apart from those mentioned I don’t believe that women are treated unfairly in anyway at all. Bibliography The holy qur’an the companions of the prophet book2 al-nawawi’s 40 hadiths Religion & equality booklet www.islamonline.net www.islam101.com www.bbc.co.uk/gcse/bitesize www.islamicforums.com
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